MARKET RESEARCH GLOSSARY - C |
Call-Back (aka Recall Interview)
A repeat telephone call to a potential respondent to see if they can participate in a survey.
Call Disposition
A tabulation of the outcome of calls made during a Computer-Aided Telephone Interview (CATI) survey.
CAGR
Compound Annual Growth Rate
The average annual percentage growth rate for a series of n observations. The formula for determining the CAGR % is as follows:
Cannibalisation
The degree to which increased sales of one brand replace sales of another brand or brands from the same manufacturer.
Canonical Analysis
An extension of multiple regression analysis that deals with two dependent variables.
CAPI
Computer-Aided Personal Interviewing
Responses in a personal interview are keyed directly into a computer and the administration of the interview is managed by a specifically designed programme. The programme checks for invalid responses and will not accept responses outside prescribed limits, hence subsequent editing and keying in of data is avoided.
Cartoon Test - see Thematic Apperception Test
Case
A complete record of an interview with a respondent or a data entry record.
Casewise Deletion
When an entire questionnaire from a respondent is removed from the analysis because some of the questions have not been completed.
CASRO
Council of American Survey Research Organisations
A trade organisation for those who are actively involved or concerned with marketing and opinion research.
Casual Relationship
Where one can infer that two variables are related in some way. Three conditions have to be met before a causal relationship can be inferred; there has to be evidence of association (concomitant variation), the dependent variable has to change after the independent variable has changed (temporal ordering) and all other possible causes have to be eliminated.
Casual Research
A type of conclusive research that aims to collect data on causal relationships.
Casual Variable - see Independent Variable
Categorical Scale
A scale that asks respondents to choose from a limited number of alternatives. There are three main types of categorical scale; semantic differential, stapel and Likert.
Categorical Variable
A variable that is based on non-metric data (ie data that cannot be analysed statistically such as that from a nominal or ordinal scale).
CATI
Computer-Aided Telephone Interviewing
Responses are keyed directly into a computer and administration of the interview is managed by a specifically designed programme. The programme checks for invalid responses and will not accept responses outside prescribed limits, hence subsequent editing and keying in of data is avoided.
CAWI
Computer-Aided Web Interviewing
Respondents complete a website (or HTML) survey and some computer software presents each question only after the previous question has been completed. Subsequent questions can be tailored to previous question answers, enabling sophisticated routing plans to be used in these surveys.
Cell
A sub-sample of respondents in a research study.
Census
The collection of data from all available units in a population of interest.
Centralised Research Function
Where the marketing researchers in an organisation are located together in one department.
Central Limit Theorem
A theorem that states that the sampling distribution curve (for sample sizes of 30 and over) will be centred on the population parameter value and it will have all the properties of a normal distribution.
Central Location Interviewing
When face-to-face interviews are conducted at one or more specified locations (eg mall intercept interviewing).
Centroid
The average value of a group of objects in a cluster.
Chat Room
Where participants in separate locations are invited to join a virtual group discussion using their PCs and the Internet. The discussion may or may not have a moderator and comments are communicated in writing on members’ screens. Participants in the discussion are usually not screened in the same way as for an online discussion group or a moderated e-mail group.
Chief Income Earner
The person in the household with the largest income, whether from employment, pensions, state benefits, investments or any other source. Where there are two people with the same income, the researcher should specify who to include in the study.
Chief Shopper
The member of a household who is responsible for the majority of household purchasing decisions.
Chi Square Distribution
A skewed distribution whose shape depends on the number of degrees of freedom. As the number of degrees of freedom increases, the distribution becomes more symmetrical.
Chi-Square Test
A non-parametric statistical test that compares research data with the expected results from a hypothesis.
Chronological Age
Individuals’ ages in years and months (which may be different to their Cognitive Age).
Claimed Recall
A measure used in advertising surveys that refers to the proportion of respondents who say they saw or heard an advertisement or a particular form of advertising.
Clarifying
The repeating or re-phrasing of an existing question to get a further explanation of an answer provided by a respondent.
Classification Information
Socio-economic and/or demographic information on participants in a market research study.
Classification Questions
Questions that aim to collect classification information and they are usually put at the end of a questionnaire.
Classified Scale - see Nominal Scale
Client
Any individual or organisation that requests, commissions or subscribes to all or any part of a market research project.
(As defined in the ICC/ESOMAR INTERNATIONAL CODE ON MARKET AND SOCIAL RESEARCH)
Client Facing Staff
Marketing researchers who are the link between research clients and the marketing research department or supplier.
Closed-Ended Questions
Closed-ended questions provide respondents with a pre-determined list of possible answers.
Cluster Analysis
An analytical technique that arranges research data into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive groups (or clusters) where the contents of each cluster are similar to each other, but different to the other clusters in the analysis.
Cluster Sampling
A type of probability sampling where a population of interest is divided into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive sub-groups (or clusters) and a sample of clusters is selected. From the selected clusters, a sample of units is drawn.
Clutter Reels
Video tapes with a number of TV commercials including the one(s) being tested and they are used to assess a commercial’s ability to stand out from the rest.
Code and Tab Plan (aka Tab Plan)
A plan that details the column and row headings in the cross-tabulations that are produced from the data.
Code Book (aka Coding Frame)
A set of instructions regarding the allocation of codes to research data. It helps researchers identify and locate the variables to be used in data analysis.
Code of Conduct (or Ethics)
All professional marketing research societies have a code of conduct that details the rights and responsibilities of those involved with marketing and opinion research.
Coding
The organising of responses into categories and the assignment of a unique numerical code to each response prior to data entry.
Coding Frame - see Code Book
Coefficient of Determination (R Squared)
The exact percentage of variation shared by two variables, obtained by squaring the product moment correlation coefficient.
Coefficient of Variation
A measure of variability (or dispersion) of a distribution and it is equal to the standard deviation expressed as a percentage of the mean.
Cognitive Age
An individual’s perceived age, which may be different to their Chronological Age. For example pre-teens aspire to be older and 40 year olds may well aspire to be younger.
Cohort Analysis
A type of multiple cross-sectional design where the population of interest is a cohort whose members have all experienced the same event in the same time period (eg birth). The samples are usually drawn at regular time intervals.
Collectively Exhaustive
A set of alternatives is collectively exhaustive when they include all possibilities.
Communality
In factor analysis, this is the amount of variance a variable shares with all the other variables being considered. It is also the proportion of variance explained by the common factors.
Comparability
The extent to which research results can be meaningfully compared.
Comparative Scales
A type of scale where one object is compared with another and a relative measure of preference is obtained, eg do respondents prefer one or another soft drink? The main types of comparative scales are: paired comparison, rank order, constant sum and Q sort.
Compensatory Model
A multi-attribute model in which one attribute compensates for another in the overall preference for an object or idea.
Completes Per Hour (CPH)
The number of interviews completed per hour of interviewing. Factors influencing CPH are: accuracy of sample, study incidence, interview length, screener length and co-operation rate.
Completion Rate
The proportion of qualified respondents who complete the interview.
Completion Technique
A form of projective technique where participants are asked to complete an incomplete situation.
Complex Questions
Questions containing words that are unfamiliar to respondents.
Composite Variable Index
An index that combines a number of separate variables, eg education, income and occupation being used to form one overall measure of social class.
Compositional Approach
An approach to attitude measurement where the overall preference for an object is obtained by summing the evaluative rating of each attribute multiplied by the importance of that attribute.
Conative Component
One of the three components of attitude that is concerned with individuals’ tendency to behave in a particular way towards an object or idea. It is usually measured in terms of likelihood to buy.
Concept
A description of a proposed product or service consisting of attributes and benefits.
Concept Board
A board with a written description of a product idea or positioning, often accompanied by an illustration that is shown to respondents.
Concept Statement
A brief written description of a new product or service idea.
Concept Testing
The investigation of potential consumers’ reactions to a proposed product or service.
Conclusions
A summary of the research findings.
Conclusive Research
Conclusive research involves the use of highly structured techniques (such as questionnaires with closed questions) with statistically representative samples in order to prove or disprove hypotheses.
Concomitant Variation
When two variables occur or vary together. It is one of the conditions that has to be met in order to infer a causal relationship.
Concurrent Validity
The degree to which two different measuring systems produce correlating results. It is often used to determine the validity of new measuring techniques, by comparing them with established techniques.
Conditional Probability
The probability of a research outcome occurring if a state or condition was to exist.
Confidence Coefficient - see Confidence Level
Confidence Interval
A range of values centred on the sample estimate that is known to contain the true value with a given degree of confidence (usually 95%).
Confidence Level (aka Confidence Coefficient)
A percentage (usually 95%) that reflects the degree of certainty that the true value lies within the confidence interval. It is the minimum probability of not rejecting a true null hypothesis (committing a Type I error) and is equal to one minus the significance level.
Confidence Limits
The two values from each end of a confidence interval.
Confidentiality
The act of not divulging two types of information in a research study. First, confidentiality is maintained when study information such as client name, brand name, purpose of the research, concepts and/or products (except as directed by the study instructions) is only provided to those who have a need to know. Confidentiality also refers to maintaining the privacy of information collected from or about any individual respondent.
Confounding Variables - see External Variables
Conjoint Analysis (aka Trade Off Analysis)
A research technique that aims to describe how consumers make complex decisions by assuming the decisions are based on a number of factors considered jointly (hence the name) and they trade off some factors for others. The technique requires participants to choose a limited number of attributes from a selection, thereby providing an indication of the importance attached to particular attributes.
Consideration Set (aka Evoked Set)
The set of alternatives that potential consumers would consider when buying a product or service.
Consistency Check
The identifying of completed questionnaires with data that are out of the permissible range, logically inconsistent or have extreme values. Data that is out of the range of the coding scheme is inadmissible.
Constant Sum Scaling
A type of comparative scale where respondents are asked to allocate a fixed amount (or constant sum) of points, dollars or anything among a set of objects according to a criterion.
Construct
A set of attitudes or values used by consumers.
Consumer
The ultimate user of a product or service.
Consumer Confusion Study
A study that aims to measure the tendency of consumers to confuse the company that makes a particular brand with another company, or to confuse one brand with another.
Consumer Panel (aka Panel)
A group of selected research participants who have agreed to provide pre-designated information at regular specified intervals over an extended period of time. The information may be on purchasing, media consumption or life-style activities.
Consumer Satisfaction Surveys
Studies that aim to determine consumers' opinion of the quality of goods and services offered by a business. They can include qualitative and quantitative research techniques.
Consumer Survey
An investigation of the behaviour, preferences, attitudes or opinions of a target group sample, collected through a questionnaire.
Contact
An interviewer's interaction with a potential respondent to determine eligibility for participation in a marketing research study.
Content Analysis
An analysis technique where written material is broken down into meaningful units using carefully designed rules.
Contingency
The difference between an actual frequency and an expected frequency in a table.
Contingency Table (aka Association Matrix)
A cross-tabulation table that contains a cell for every combination of categories of the two variables.
Continuous Data
Data from a measurement scale where it is permissible to calculate intermediate values.
Continuous Panel
A consumer panel that involves participation from the same respondents repeatedly over time. This contrasts with an ad hoc panel, where a pre-recruited group of willing respondents are used as and when they are required.
Continuous Rating Scale (aka Graphic Rating Scale)
A type of non-comparative scale that offers respondents a form of continuum (such as a line) on which to provide a rating of an object according to a criterion.
Continuous Research
Any research that involves the regular, on-going collection of data, eg consumer panels and EPOS data.
Contrived Observation
The observation of behaviour in an artificial setting.
Control Cell
A group of respondents that receives the normal (or no) treatment and provides a basis of comparison to the test or experimental group that receives the test or experimental treatment.
Controlled Store Test
A type of research experiment where one group of stores receives a certain treatment (test stores) and another group receives no treatment (control stores). Sales are then measured for each group over an extended period of time to measure the effect of the treatment.
Convenience Sample
A type of non-probability sample where the units have been selected because they are convenient for the researcher (which may not be the optimum sample for the research project).
Convergent Validity
The ability of a measurement scale to correlate (or converge) with other measures of the same variable.
Cookie File
A computer file that is secretly added to the hard disk of someone who visits a website that sends them. Their purpose is to track website visitors, however the use of cookies in marketing research is not approved by ESOMAR.
Co-operation Fee - see Incentive
Co-operation Rate
The proportion of eligible respondents who, having been contacted, agree to participate in a research study. The co-operation rate is impacted by the length of the interview, the subject matter and the type of person being interviewed.
Copy Point Recall
An advertising research measure of a respondent's ability to remember a particular message, slogan or theme etc from a commercial.
Copy Testing
A method of determining the degree of understanding, impact, awareness and believability that an ad may generate. Respondents are shown the ad, then they are questioned about their opinions.
Correlation
The existence of a relationship between two variables (which may or may not be a causal relationship - correlation on its own does not infer causality).
Correlation Coefficient - see Product Moment Correlation Coefficient
Correspondence Analysis
A perceptual mapping technique that is based on data where respondents are asked to identify only the attributes that relate to (or correspond with) the subject of the study.
Cost per Interview
Determined by dividing the total budget for a project by the number of completed interviews.
Counter-Biasing
A technique that is used to increase respondents’ willingness to answer questions honestly. Questions are prefaced with statements that attempt to justify an answer that may go against social group norms, eg “recent surveys have indicated that the majority of people have difficulty saving every month”.
Covariance
The extent of a relationship between two variables, whereby a change in one variable implies a change in the other.
Covariate
A metric independent variable (ie based on data that can be analysed such as that from an interval or a ratio scale).
Coverage
The proportion (usually expressed as a percentage) of a population of interest that has been exposed to a particular advertisement.
Creative Development Research
A type of qualitative research that is used to formulate advertising. It can work at three stages in the advertising development process:
- Defining the strategy - ie what should the advertising be saying?
- Defining the execution - ie how should it be said?
- Testing a chosen execution.
Cross-Cultural Analysis
The collection and analysis of data from different countries (or cultural units) that compares the findings from different countries.
Cross-Sectional Design
A research design that involves the collection of data from a sample only once.
Cross-Tabulation
A table that shows the frequency and/or percentage of respondents who gave various answers to a question in a survey, and which simultaneously shows these answers for various sub-groups of respondents.
Cross-Validation
Cross-Validation is a test of validity for a regression model that involves using comparable data to check the validity of an original estimation.
The total sum of learned beliefs, values and customs that serve to regulate the consumer behaviour of members of a particular society.